The Many Faces of
Israel:
Exploring the
Historical Israel from Exodus to Judges
John C. Haynes, Jr.
JST-3401: Jewish
People in Antiquity
Dr. Kenneth Hanson
December 5, 2021
1
Israel
The name
Israel has many connotations for many different people, but for most it suggests
the people who developed a nation in the land of Canaan and would come to
produce the religious group known as Jews. This is an extremely simplistic view
of the long and varied history of people of Israel, but one that suffices for a
quick rendering of the modern view of Israel. But who or what exactly is
Israel? How do we define the term and can find a definitive point in history
where there was a united group known as Israel? When reading the Hebrew
scriptures, or the Old Testament in Christian terminology, many people quickly
assume that Israel has always been one united people, politically and
culturally, that acted in unison. However, at least up until the time of United
Monarch, and likely not until the reign of King David, “Israel” was perhaps
more a loose term for various tribes that were linked to varying degrees by
religion, culture, ethnicity, and history. While they had much in common, they
did not move or act as one united body.
Modern
readers of the Bible encounter historical events portrayed in the books of
Exodus through Judges as though the entire nation of Israel acted homogenously.
From the migration into Egypt, through the Exodus, the settlement of Canaan,
and wars with the Philistines and Canaanites, the Bible refers to all these
events as being a series of single acts by a people called Israel. In this
paper, I argue that there is relevant evidence to show that most often, what
the Bible refers to as Israel was at times no more than a small group within
one of the Israelite tribes to perhaps no greater than a few of the tribes
acting in unison. The assumption, when reading the Bible, is that all twelve
tribes of Israel acted together in a unified, coordinated effort. However, a
textual analysis of many of the events will reveal that this is not the case. I
will argue that the
2
term Israel, when used to refer to the entirety of the
tribes, is not proper until the time of the United Monarchy under King David.
Further solidifying this argument is the fact that even under King David, large
factions within the tribes were still acting independently of each other and
against each other.
History and
Theology
What do we
mean when we use the name Israel? A political body? A religious group? A social
class? An ethnic group? These questions become more obfuscated because the true
answer to all these questions is “yes.” Israel is all these things, and yet
they never act as one unified body. Throughout their history they have been
divided politically, theologically, socially, and ethnically. The name Isra’el
was given to the patriarch Jacob, son of Isaac, who was the son of Abraham.
Jacob had twelve sons who would become the nation that has taken the name
Israel. The history of Israel is contained within the totality of the Hebrew
scriptures and is bound up in the history of their relationship to God. We
cannot separate the history of Israel from her theology. However, we can find
clues as to how the people acted and reacted to historical events by analyzing
the biblical text.
The
background into which the people of Israel make their appearance is a complex
one. We do not have a clear picture of who the Israelites descended from. The
Book of Genesis tells their pre-history, much of it mythical, becoming mythic
in nature. What we know from archaeology is that there were a collection of
peoples known as ‘apiru or Habiru in the land of Canaan prior to
the settlement by Israelites. Another historical term for the Israelites is
Hebrews. Scholars agree that Hebrew is a cognate of ‘apiru but neither term
designates ethnic origin.
3
Instead, it appears to be an indicator of social class; identifying
a group as “outsiders” or possibly even “outlaws.”[1] Like the ‘apiru, the
early Hebrews were not nomads, but they were a landless people. They instead
belonged to a floating population, what has been described as “unsettled”
elements of society.[2] These people would have
been semi-nomadic pastoralists, equally at home in the Canaanite hillsides as
well as in the urban centers. It has also been conjectured that the Hebrews
descended from the Amorites (Ammuru). The Hebrew scriptures present the
Amorites as a pre-Israelite people associated with the hill country and the
Transjordan region. The Book of Ezekiel also mentions the Amorites as being
ancestors of the Israelites. The names of many Amorites are Northwest Semitic,
the same as the Hebrew language, however, it is different in structure from
Akkadian. Mesopotamian texts refer to them as MAR.TU.[3] The first extra-biblical
reference to the name Israel is found on the victory stele of the Egyptian
pharaoh Merneptah, dated to 1220 BCE. On this stele is found several Canaanite
city-states that the Egyptian forces were victorious over. Also listed, is the
following curious line: “Israel is laid waste, his seed is not.” The other
nations listed had the designation of a city-state. Here, Israel is given the designation
of a “people.”[4]
This would indicate that the “Israel” which Merneptah had encountered were not
associated with a specific city-state but were rather a group of people.
4
The identity of a societal group
who can collectively be called Israel begins in the Book of Exodus. In fact,
today, Jews generally regard their identity as a religious body as beginning
with the Passover in Egypt. Prior to this were the quasi-mythical Patriarchs.
After leaving Egypt, the people of Israel passed out of “mythical” time and
entered into qualifiable (even if not documentable) history. And yet, even
through the Exodus events, the wandering in the Sinai, the entrance into
Canaan, the establishment of twelve tribes, the evolving into two regions known
as Israel and Judah, and even the first Monarch, Saul, we never really have a
clear idea of who Israel is or what Israel is. The Exodus from Egypt served to
order and organize the former Hebrew slaves into a unified community of God.[5] It has been proposed that until
the sojourn in the Sinai, the Israelites lacked the consciousness of identity,
the commitment to a common way of life, and the shared history which constitute
a people.[6] Here also in the Sinai was
found a new name for their God, YHWH.
The Promised Land
The
timeline of events in the Book of Numbers from Sinai into Canaan runs roughly: Israel
is encamped at Sinai, the journey from Sinai to Qadesh, Israel is encamped at
Qadesh, the journey from Qadesh to Moab, and finally, Israel is encamped on the
plains of Moab. From this point, many scholars, and the archaeological record
as well, disagree on exactly what occurred or how it occurred. What we do know
is that the people of Israel became over several hundred years the dominant people
in the land of Canaan. The biblical text gives a picture of conquest by the
5
“Israelites” over the Canaanites over a short period of
time. But who were the Israelites that moved into the area? Scholars generally
fall into three camps regarding this issue:
1.
Agreement with the biblical text that Joshua and
the Israelite army conducted major military operations in the area, destroying
entire cities and overcoming the Canaanites.
2.
View the increasing Israelite population as
having already been in the countryside and rose up in a sort of “peasants”
revolt.
3.
View the increasing Israelite population as a
gradual settlement in the area of peoples from outside of Canaan.[7]
It has been proposed by historian John Bright that scholars
should consider all three as having occurred, both simultaneously and over
time.[8] Bright believes that Hebrews
already in the area may have joined with others coming from out of the desert, rising
up against Canaanites in both small skirmishes as well as several large military
operations. Out of this uprising emerged the tribal confederation known as
Israel.[9]
There are
several pieces of evidence that would indicate there were tribes of Hebrews
already in Canaan when the Egypt-Israel group arrived. West Semitic groups,
like the Hebrews had been moving into Canaan for some time. These groups had
common origins and were interrelated. They shared memories, traditions, as well
as the same mythic ancestors. They retained a common identity that was within
the structure of a tribal system which was quite
6
ancient.[10] Many of these tribes held
on to their family gods, but gradually, the concept of a national God began to
take root. This God would come to be identified with the Sinai and the Exodus
as YHWH.[11]
In addition, The Amarna letters indicate that a large number of the inhabitants
of Canaan who were related to the Hebrews that went into Egypt, never left
Canaan. One reference is to a Labaya of Shechem who caused great difficulties
for the Egyptians. There is as well an implication in the Bible that Shechem
remained in Hebrew/Israelite control throughout the sojourn into Egypt and the
subsequent Exodus. Upon return to Canaan, the Hebrews who had been in Egypt
rejoined their “brethren” in Shechem and celebrated a covenant renewal.
Therefore, to say that “Israel” went into Egypt, then through God was released
from bondage to reclaim Canaan is not as clear-cut as it would appear.[12]
One final
circumstantial note that Johnson relates is the practice of circumcision. This
was a requirement given to Abraham by God as a sign of their covenant. Circumcision
is not a widely practiced ritual in the ancient world, however it appears that
the Edomites, the Moabites, and the Ammonites all performed it.[13] If we look at familial
ties as a source for this shared ritual, by biblical tradition, the Edomites
were descended from Jacob’s brother Esau, the Moabites were descended from Lot,
Abraham’s nephew, and the Ammonites were descended from one of Lot’s sons.
These “cousins” of the Israelites were all in the region upon the return of the
group out of Egypt. In his book Understanding the Old Testament, Bernard
Anderson notes that the “Leah tribes,” that is Jacobs six sons by his wife
Leah, were already settled in the region of Canaan.[14]
7
Revisiting Joshua
We now turn
our attention back to Joshua, who according to Hebrew scriptures, is about to
wage a major campaign against the Canaanites. As we have seen, the large
military operations described may not have occurred exactly as reported. Certainly,
there may have been a few. But who was the campaigner and who were they
campaigning against? It is likely that the group out of Egypt, who we refer to
as Israelites due to their relationship with Jacob, were not the only
Israelites. I have stated earlier that the body known as “Israel” likely took shape
in the Sinai. However, some scholars have arrived at a different conclusion. It
is argued that Israel did not truly form until the arrival at Qadesh. The
sojourn at Qadesh undoubtedly had a tremendous effect upon the people who were
there. Unfortunately, however, it is difficult to determine what groups where
there, where they all came from, and how long they stayed.[15] When the Egypt group
arrived at Qadesh, they may have encountered other Hebrews already in the land
who had come down into Canaan separately or who had left Egypt at other times
and by other means.[16] In fact, it may be at
Qadesh that their basic community life, administration of law, and style of
worship were established.[17] Johnson takes this idea
even further to argue that many of the tribes may have already been in Canaan
with the last two pushing in at a later date: Joshua and his party pushing in
from Egypt and Levites coming in from Qadesh.[18] If this is true, Joshua
likely did not command all or even most of the armies of the tribes. The
multitude of large battles
8
would not have occurred, although many small-scale
skirmishes are likely. What really occurred was a re-introduction of small
groups of tribes into an area that was already predominantly occupied by
related Hebrew tribes.[19]
The Judges
There is
biblical evidence that during the time of the judges, the various tribes of
Israel were still not as cohesive a unit as we might think them to be. Even
though the Bible often makes reference to “all of Israel,” the fact is “all of
Israel” rarely did anything as one group. The final “conquest” of Canaan likely
took around two hundred years, from around 1200-1000 BCE.[20] During the time of the
judges, different tribes acted independently of each other and often fought against
each other. They would also have been busy battling other Canaanite tribes as
well as the Philistines who were pushing in from the Mediterranean coast. Each
“judge” had to build a military coalition based on their individual character. It
is also possible that each judge only operated within their local jurisdiction.[21] Charisma likely played as
much into building an army as national identity or familial fidelity. By the
time of Saul, a Benjamite guerilla captain, the tribes had already begun a dipole
separation into those from the north and those from the south. Judah being
predominant in the south with the smaller tribe Benjamin. The remaining ten
tribes constituted the northern sphere. Each tribe descended from Jacob’s sons
had its own leaders. Any unity maintained during this period probably had more
to do with ethnic ties than any other
9
factor.[22] The Book of Joshua
describes a unified military force under one commander. However, the Book of Judges
seems to indicate military operations along tribal lines. For example, it was
the tribe of Judah that captured Jerusalem in Judges 1:8), Hebron and Debir was
subdued under Judah and Simeon according to Judges 1:9-20, and Bethel, which is
not mentioned in Joshua, was conquered by the house of Joseph (Judges 1:22-26).[23] In Judges chapter 1, it
is Israel that fights the remaining Canaanites. However, in ancient poetic
form, we can see how tribal armies acted not as one nation, but independently.
We see this in the Song of Deborah from Judges 5. At first, as in Judges
chapter 1, it is the “princes of Israel” who take the lead. However, the text
goes on to say:
14
Some came from Ephraim, whose roots were in Amalek;
Benjamin was
with the people who followed you.
From
Makir captains came down,
from
Zebulun those who bear a commander’s[c] staff.
15 The princes
of Issachar were with Deborah;
yes,
Issachar was with Barak,
sent under
his command into the valley.
In
the districts of Reuben
there
was much searching of heart.
16 Why did you
stay among the sheep pens[d]
to hear the whistling for the
flocks?
In
the districts of Reuben
there was
much searching of heart.
10
17 Gilead stayed
beyond the Jordan.
And
Dan, why did he linger by the ships?
Asher remained on the
coast
and stayed in his coves.
18 The people of
Zebulun risked their very lives;
so did Naphtali on the terraced fields.
And finally, in Judges 7:22, it is the “Israelites” who ask
Gideon to rule over them all. However, Judges 7:23-24 describes the conflict as
a more localized issue where Israelites from Naphtali, Asher, and all Manasseh
were called out to pursue the Midianites, then word was sent out and all of
Ephraim were called out to pursue the Midianites.[24]
Conclusion
While the
Hebrew scriptures from Exodus through Judges often refer to “all of Israel,” it
is apparent that seldom was there a single, unified entity that can effectively
be called Israel. Certainly, there were the components of the group known as
Israel. It is likely that groups of Hebrews moved into Egypt while others
stayed in Canaan. When those Hebrews in Egypt journeyed back to the Canaan,
they adopted a set of religious laws that was posited by the God YHWH, who says
he “found” Israel in the wilderness. Upon returning to Canaan, this group
battled and merged with the local inhabitants, many of whom were distantly
related Hebrews to
11
form a tribal confederation that still acted independently
of each other. Even into the period of the United Monarchy, there was likely
not a unified Israel, as such.
12
Bibliography
Anderson, Bernard. Understanding the Old Testament,
4th ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,
1986.
Grabbe, Lester. Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How
Do We Know It? Revised Edition.
London: Bloomsbury Publishing,
Plc., 2017
Hill, Andrew and John Walton. A Survey of the Old
Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan
Publishing
House, 1991.
Jewish Publication Society, The Jewish Study Bible,
Tanakh Translation, 2nd ed. Oxford:
Oxford
University Press, 2004.
Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1987.
Josephus, Flavius. Josephus, The Essential Writings.
Trans. Paul L. Maier. Grand Rapids:
Kregel
Publications, 1988.
[1]
Grabbe, Lester. Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?
Revised Edition.
London: Bloomsbury Publishing, Plc., 2017. 52.
[2]
Anderson, Bernard. Understanding the Old Testament, 4th ed. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,
1986. 111.
[3]
Grabbe, Lester. Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?
Revised Edition.
London: Bloomsbury Publishing, Plc., 2017. 50-51.
[4]
Anderson, Bernard. Understanding the Old Testament, 4th ed. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,
1986. 115.
[5]
Hill, Andrew and John Walton. A Survey of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids:
Zondervan
Publishing House, 1991. 133.
[6]
Ibid. 134.
[7]
Anderson, Bernard. Understanding the Old Testament, 4th ed. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,
1986. 140.
[8]
Ibid.
[9]
Ibid.
[11]
Ibid.
[12]
Ibid. 22-23.
[13]
Ibid. 37.
[14]
Anderson, Bernard. Understanding the Old Testament, 4th ed. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,
1986. 144.
[15]
Anderson, Bernard. Understanding the Old Testament, 4th ed. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,
1986. 114.
[16]
Ibid. 115.
[17]
Ibid.
[19]
Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1987. 22-23.
[20]
Ibid. 45.
[21]
Hill, Andrew and John Walton. A Survey of the Old
Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan
Publishing
House, 1991. 178.
[22]Hill,
Andrew and John Walton. A Survey of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids:
Zondervan
Publishing House, 1991.175.
[23]
Anderson, Bernard. Understanding the Old Testament, 4th ed. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,
1986. 134-135.
[24]
All quotations of Scripture in this paper have been taken from The Jewish
Study Bible, Tanakh Translation, 2nd Edition. Jewish Publication
Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
