International Diplomacy in the Late Bronze Age

 

            The Late Bronze Age period in the ancient Near East was marked by a level of international diplomacy and trade that had never occurred previously in the region. Between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, the entire region from Iran to the Mediterranean Sea joined in a complex system of trade that saw goods flow across the area.[1] Characteristic of this trade network was a system of diplomacy exhibited between the largest kingdoms that dominated the region. These kingdoms included Egypt, Kassite Babylonia, the Hittites, and the Mittani, who would later be replaced by the Assyrians.[2] Luckily for historians, the period is abundant in textual and archaeological records which shed light into the complex world of trade and diplomatic protocol that developed. Sources from the period include royal inscriptions, legal and administrative documents, literary texts, as well as diplomatic correspondence and international treaties.[3] In addition to the textual corpus, additional sources come from the abundance of building activity and artistic creation during the period, a direct result of the relative wealth that the elite procured.[4]

            One of the greatest sources for historical information comes from the site of Amarna in Egypt. This is the site where the Pharaoh Akhenaten moved his capital to during his reign in the fourteenth century BCE. Here, an archive of correspondence between Egypt and the kings of the other great powers, as well as those of the smaller vassal states have been found that shed much light into the relationships between these rulers. These documents are collectively referred to as the “Amarna letters.”[5] Many of these letters demonstrate outwardly a bond of friendship and acknowledgement of the “Great Kings” as equals. A common greeting expressing brotherly affection is found in most, as evidenced in Amarna letter EA17: “Sa[y] to Nibmuareya, the k[ing of Egypt], my brother: Thus Tuiseratta, the king of [M]ittani, your brother.”[6] Other cities, though smaller in number, also contained archives of texts, many of them of international treaties, such as found in Ugarit and Qatna.[7]

            The archaeological record of the period confirms the large trade network and abundance of wealth as well. A flow of goods across the Near East brought exotic and desired materials from one region to another. Many cities served as trade hubs and ports in this system that included regions as far as the Aegean, Italy, and Spain. In Ugarit, archaeologists have uncovered a workshop for bronze production near the harbor as well as areas for working purple textiles.[8] Excavations at Qatna, in central Syria, uncovered a mausoleum beneath the palace that included the burials of 19-23 individuals. Within the chambers, the bodies were laid to rest with large amounts of gold, ivory, and semi-precious stones.[9] According to Van De Mieroop, cylinder seals made in Babylonia have been found in the Greek city of Thebes.[10] Perhaps one of the greatest archaeological finds that corroborates the extent of the trade network was a shipwreck discovered off the coast of southern Anatolia, near the city of Uluburun. The ship dates to the fourteenth century BCE and amongst many other valuable items contained ten tons of copper from Cyprus, one ton of tin of unknown origin, ebony logs from Africa, and cedar logs from Lebanon.[11]

            In addition to archaeological records of trade, Van De Mieroop notes that the period was characterized by the building of substantial monumental architecture. He points out that, except for the “Great Pyramids,” almost all of the most famous of Egypt’s tombs and temples date from the Late Bronze Age. Many of these tombs are filled with large amounts of treasure.[12] Art from the period flourished, and one such example denotes the importance of a new mechanism for war: the chariot. A carved relief discovered in Thebes, Egypt, depicts the Battle of Qadesh between Egypt and the Hittite nation. At the forefront are several war chariots, each pulled by two horses and holding three men, indicated as a driver, a shield bearer, and a warrior.[13] Many luxury goods exchanged hands between the “Great Kings” as part of their formal gift-giving process. Typically, gold was sent from Egypt to the other kingdoms as Egypt was the main region where this precious metal was found. In return, the other nations gave to Egypt horses, precious and semi-precious stones, fine oils, and other crafts.[14] In another letter from the Amarna archive (EA15), Assur-ubalit of Assyria writes to the king of Egypt saying that he has sent to him “a beautiful chariot, 2 horses, and a date-stone of genuine lapis-lazuli.”[15]

            While the textual and archaeological record of the period open up a large window to study the social contexts and relationships of the region, care must also be taken to recognize the limitations of the data. According to Van De Mieroop, the largest issue in reconstructing a historical narrative for the period is chronology. While there is often a good record of a sequence of rulers, it is not always possible or easy to determine actual dates for their rule.[16] Often, it is necessary to compare records with data from other regions to approximate a relational date. Another issue related to how we treat the textual data is in the bias of the writers themselves. As stated previously, the kings often addressed each other with warm words of affection, as it seems was standard at the time. However, this should not diverge our attention from the fact that these rulers were often rivals and had ulterior motives. As can be seen in Amarna letter EA9, the writer complains to the Egyptian king that the latter has only sent him “two minas of gold.” Later he states quite matter-of-factly: “Send me more gold.”[17] Finally, it is important to remember that political maneuvering was always at the heart of every ruler, not always for ill intentions, but still at the core. This was true also amongst the vassal states as their rulers would often try to get out of paying taxes or, at the very least, delay when they must be paid. They often would also attempt to obfuscate the subject of taxes by pointing out the flaws of other vassal kings.

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[1] Van De Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000-323 BC. 3rd Ed. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016, 137.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid, 138.

[4] Ibid.

[5] Ibid, 143.

[6] The Amarna Letters. Ed. And Trans. By William L. Moran. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 41.

[7] Van De Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000-323 BC. 3rd Ed. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016, 144.

[8] Ibid, 150.

[9] Ibid, 153.

[10] Ibid, 148.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Van De Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000-323 BC. 3rd Ed. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016, 153.

[13] Ibid, 152.

[14] Ibid, 148.

[15] The Amarna Letters. Ed. And Trans. By William L. Moran. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 38.

[16] Van De Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000-323 BC. 3rd Ed. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016, 138.

[17] The Amarna Letters. Ed. And Trans. By William L. Moran. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 18.